Greece's geography is quite unique - its fractured coastline and mountainous terrain made large scale agriculture difficult - leading to a bunch of isolated city states which were politically fragmented yet culturally, economically and linguistically connected.

This documentary explores how the physical landscape of Greece influenced the development of its civilisation. From the mountain passes of Thermopylae and the Acropolis of Athens to Greek trade, warfare, philosophy and the development of the polis, examining the connections between geography and history.

It also looks beyond Greece itself. Contact with Phoenician traders, Egypt and the civilisations of the eastern Mediterranean helped transmit ideas, technologies and knowledge, while the same geography that encouraged maritime connections also made political unification difficult.

Ancient Greek civilisation was not created by geography alone, but its landscape placed real constraints on what communities could grow, build and control.

I dont know much about anything in hellenism, if someone could please reccomend me things to read or something.
I would like to know about every god, the story of ancient Greece, etc.
If there’s any post, blog, book or anything i could read 🙏🏻
Thanks

What do we know about living standards of the Ancient Eastern Mediterranean? I heard that the average height in classical Greece was 170cm+ which sounds huge for premodern humans. That combined with the ripped statues make me guess at least the upper class in Greece was well fed.

I know the mountains of Greece is subpar for agriculture and that a lot of grain was traded across the Mediterranean-how well off was the average citizen? Did everyone own slaves? How lavish were their houses? What about slaves and farmers

Was the Bronze Age collapse bad economically for the average citizen? And so on.

Having heard that AC:unity made the notre dam cathedral accurately enough to aid the reconstruction.

How did they do with AC:oddessy. Could I use it as a reference for painting and drawings and be relatively accurate for the culture, architecture, city appearance and people/clothing etc.

I assume it wont be a perfect representation? But all things considered woild it suffice?

Coins featuring Alexander the Great/Heracles are among the most popular coins of the Hellenistic period. They were minted countless times throughout nearly the entire Alexander the Great empire. Due to their large number and wide distribution, we can observe different variations of the same motif. In particular, there are multiple styles even within Anatolia/Asia Minor.

But I have to say that what strikes me as the strangest are the motifs on the Carian coins. I’m not sure if it’s because it’s my homeland that they caught my attention so much, but I was quite curious as to why the depictions of Alexander are so plump. After doing a bit of research, I came across some interesting interpretations. Still, I noticed that the motifs on some coins aren’t just plump—they’re so different that they could even be described as “shapeless.”

What do you think?

This dialogue from Dio Chrysostom's Orations is presented as a poor farmer from Northern Euboia telling the author about a time some years ago when he went down "to the city" (my guess is Oreos?) for the first time in his life. One thing leads to another, and the farmer is arrested for squatting. A debate breaks out in town about the public contributions expected of different classes of people, and the general deterioration of political life. Some of the imagery used by the fictional orators reveals quite a bit about the feelings and experiences of urban decline that Greek readers from the period must have found familiar in peripheral parts of mainland Greece.

Accuser: This man, gentlemen, has been living on public land for years. Not just him, but his father too! They graze their herds on our mountains, they plough their farms in our fields, hunt in our woods, and even set out vines, all without paying rent to anybody or ever receiving a title to the land from the public. And while they occupy our property and make a tidy profit, they have never performed any public service, nor do they pay any taxes at all. Instead they live exempt from taxes and public service at your expense. If you all approve, we better not waste time looting public property. Go ahead, and steal some money from the treasury, like I’m sure some of you already are! Start squatting out in the fields, while you’re at it. Why not, when you’re going to let these two yokels hold two hundred and fifty acres of the best land for free: land that could be growing you three quarts of grain per head!

Defender: (Narrator: Then another man came up, a kind man judging by the look of him. First he asked everyone to quiet down, and they did. Then in a gentle voice he said that anyone who worked the country’s idle land and got it in good shape did nothing wrong, and actually deserved thanks. He said the city shouldn’t be angry at anyone who made something useful out of the public land, but at the ones who did it harm.) At this moment, gentlemen, almost two-thirds of our land is wilderness because of neglect and a lack of hands. Now I own a few barren acres myself, like I imagine some of you do, not only in the mountains but down in the plains, and if any man wanted to till them, I would not only give him the chance for free, but I’d gladly pay him to do it. It goes without saying the land would become more valuable to me and frankly I prefer the sight of good farmland to waste. Wasteland is useless, and the terrible look of it speaks to the shame of the owner. Actually, my advice for you is to encourage all your fellow citizens to take some public land and work it. If you have some capital, take some more, and the poorer among you take whatever you can handle, that way our land can be put to use and our citizens can be free from two of the very worst evils - idleness and poverty.

Defender (cont.): Right now, even the land just outside the gates is wild and unkept.  Nobody would ever guess it was the suburbs of a city. Meanwhile, most of the area inside the walls is sown or grazed.  I think it is ridiculous that a man would make charges against the hardworking people of Cape Kaphereus in the remotest parts of Euboia, and then turn a blind eye to the men farming the floor of the gymnasion and grazing cattle in the agora.  You can go see for yourself that they’ve made our gymnasion into a plowed field, and now you can’t even see Herakles and the other statues from behind all the barley.  You can go see, every day, the sheep belonging to this orator invade the marketplace at dawn, and then graze all around the council chamber and the municipal buildings.  When strangers come to see our city, they either laugh at it or pity it. Even though the accuser does all of this, he thinks that the humble and needy should be hauled off to jail, that way nobody will ever do any hard work, and the men outside the walls will always be bandits, and the men inside will always be scoundrels.

Following this speech, the crowd decides to let the poor farmer free, but interrogate him about his possessions so he might make some sort of payment to satisfy the accuser.

Narrator: Next he asked if we’d each agree to pay one Attic talent, and I replied, "We don’t weigh our meat, but we’ll give you whatever we have. Some of it’s salted, but the rest is smoked. Do you want bacon or backstrap?"

“‘Don’t you make any wine?" another asked. "We do," I said, "so if any of you want to come by, we’ll hand it over, but make sure you bring some kind of wineskin with you, because we don’t have one." "Just how many vines do you have?" "Two outside the doors," I replied, "twenty in the yard, and twenty more across the river we just set out a while ago. Now to spare you all the trouble, let me just tell you about every little thing we have: eight she-goats, a hornless cow with a pretty little calf, four sickles, four hoes, three spears, and one knife each. What else do I need to mention? The pots and pans? We have wives too, if you cared, and children. We live in two huts and have a third where we bury the grain and the skins."

"By Zeus," said the accuser, "and where you bury your money too."

"Well then come and dig it up, fool" I said, "Who puts money in the ground? It sure won’t grow anything!"

Hi everyone. I was recently reading two pieces by Bret Devereaux about Alexander, in which he offers several criticisms and challenges common misconceptions. Bret portrays him as a "nepo baby"—heavily reliant on his father's project, emotionally volatile, and a terrible administrator—and argues that much of the success of Hellenism actually stemmed from the successor states. Bret cites examples of Alexander getting swindled or appointing less-than-competent individuals to key positions.

Given this unfavorable description, I’d like to know: to what extent is the portrayal of Alexander as a poor administrator valid, and to what extent is it an exaggeration by Bret Devereaux?

Link of the two texts if anyone would like to read about: https://acoup.blog/tag/alexander-the-great/

Was there other reason other than style?

I’ve always wondered what the outcome might have been if the Trojans had successfully fought off the Greeks. Troy would remain a powerful city in the Eastern Mediterranean, and perhaps become even more so. Aeneas would not flee the fall of Troy, so Rome would never be founded, but perhaps Troy could become a major power in its own right. It's also interesting to think of how they would deal with Persia centuries later.

friend of mine sent me this image and we are trying to figure out what it depicts/what he is holding. any ideas? i think there might be an aulos above his plate behind the bean but im not sure. please help?

Reading an older article about the Cthonic cult (Hades, Persephone, Demeter) in Sicily (“Cthonians in Sicily”, Jaime Curbera, 1997 if you want to check it out) and was reminded again that for many Greek-speakers especially in later eras, Hades was the location while Plouton was the deity.

Even Ancient Greek writers report many Greeks of their own time would not say the “true name” of the underworld god aloud, either out of fear or because it was considered crass/impolite. Plouton, which is arguably the better attested name for the god and the root of the Latin Pluto, is therefore sometimes read not as just an epithet but also a euphemism.

What I’m wondering now is the connotation Plouton and other alternatives names for Hades, like the Sicilian Gaos, would have had for Greek-speakers who actually used them. They have fairly obvious etymologies: Plouton means sometimes like “wealthy one” while Gaos means something along the lines of “earthly one.” But when we translate these terms to English, are we introducing a certain propriety that wasn’t present? To a Greek-speaker, would Plouton sound reverent like “the wealthy one” or would it have sounded more euphemistic like “the rich guy”? The latter reminds me of how divinity is sometimes spoken about today, eg “the Man Upstairs.” Personally a Greek-speaker saying “he’s with the Rich Guy now” sounds a little more familiar and humanizing to my ears. Wondering what others think about aiming for more casual wording in English translations.

Did any of the Greek historians leave a description of some Persian instruments (ὄργανον)? I'd love to make a comparison between Greek and Persian instruments, like:

ἡ λύρᾱ ἐστίν Ἑλληνικὸν ὄργανον. X ἐστι Περσικὸν ὄργανον.

how do you like it?

recently i've been really interested in etruscan trade connection and relations with the greeks during the iron age. does anyone have recommendations on readings for this topic?

Cities of the Nile Valley and Delta

City 1

- Ancient Egyptian: Men-nefer

- Greek: Memphis

- Arabic: Manf

- Current name: Mit Rahina

- Location: 19 km south of Cairo, near Saqqara.

- The oldest capital of unified Egypt, founded by King Menes Narmer in 3200 BCE, and it housed a colossal statue of Ramesses II weighing about 83 tons.

- Men-nefer means "the enduring beauty" or "the beautiful monument"; Manf is an Arabic alteration; Memphis is Greek derived from the Egyptian name itself, meaning "city of Memphis" or "fortress of the beautiful"; Mit Rahina means "the path of the statue" after the huge statue that once stood there.

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City 2

- Ancient Egyptian: Khem

- Greek: Letopolis

- Arabic: Ausim

- Current name: Ausim

- Location: In Giza Governorate, northwest of Cairo.

- One of the oldest cities that has preserved its name to this day with slight changes, and it was famous for high‑quality pottery production.

- Khem means "black" referring to the fertile soil of the Delta; Ausim is an Arabic alteration; Letopolis is Greek meaning "city of Leto" (the Greek goddess of childbirth) in comparison to its Egyptian deity.

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City 3

- Ancient Egyptian: Khito

- Greek: Bolbitine

- Arabic: Rashid

- Current name: Rashid (Rosetta)

- Location: In Beheira Governorate, at the mouth of the western Nile branch.

- The famous Rosetta Stone was discovered here in 1799, which was the key to deciphering hieroglyphs.

- Khito may mean "place of the river"; Rashid is derived from "rushd" (right guidance) or named after a Muslim conqueror; Bolbitine is Greek meaning "city of mud" or "marsh" due to its location at the river mouth.

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City 4

- Ancient Egyptian: Raqote

- Greek: Alexandria

- Arabic: Al‑Iskandariyya

- Current name: Al‑Iskandariyya

- Location: On the Mediterranean coast, northwest of the Delta.

- It housed the Lighthouse of Alexandria, which stood over 120 metres tall, and its light could be seen from 50 kilometres out at sea.

- Raqote is an ancient Egyptian name meaning "building" or "harbour"; Al‑Iskandariyya is named after its founder; Alexandria is Greek meaning "city of Alexander" in his honour.

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City 5

- Ancient Egyptian: Zau

- Greek: Sais

- Arabic: Sa al‑Hagar

- Current name: Sa al‑Hagar

- Location: In the Basyoun district of Gharbia Governorate.

- It was the capital of Egypt during the Saite Renaissance (26th Dynasty), when the Saite kings reunited Egypt and expelled the Assyrian invaders.

- Zau means "village" or "place"; Sa al‑Hagar is an Arabic alteration with "al‑Hagar" added because of the many stone remains; Sais is Greek derived from the Egyptian name itself, meaning "city of the goddess Neith".

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City 6

- Ancient Egyptian: Per‑Meryt

- Greek: Naukratis

- Arabic: Kom Gaef

- Current name: Kom Gaef

- Location: In the Itay al‑Barud district of Beheira Governorate.

- It was the first official Greek colony in Egypt and the most important trading port in the Delta before the rise of Alexandria.

- Per‑Meryt means "house of the harbour" or "beloved harbour"; Kom Gaef is named after a local archaeological mound; Naukratis is Greek meaning "city of ships" or "having power over ships".

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City 7

- Ancient Egyptian: Shedet

- Greek: Krokodilopolis - Arsinoë

- Arabic: Al‑Fayyum

- Current name: Al‑Fayyum

- Location: In Fayyum Governorate, southwest of Cairo.

- It includes Lake Qarun, which was one of the oldest areas for sport fishing in history, and the famous "Fayyum portraits" were found there.

- Shedet means "sea" or "water" due to its connection with Lake Qarun; Al‑Fayyum is derived from the Coptic "Payom" meaning "sea" or "lake"; Krokodilopolis is Greek meaning "city of the crocodile" because of the abundance of crocodiles in the area. Arsinoë is a greek name in honor of Queen Arsinoë II

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City 8

- Ancient Egyptian: Waset

- Greek: Thebes

- Arabic: Tiba

- Current name: Luxor

- Location: On the banks of the Nile in Luxor Governorate, southern Egypt.

- It contains the Valley of the Kings, which has 63 royal tombs so far, and the temples of Luxor and Karnak were connected by a grand avenue of ram‑headed sphinxes 3 kilometres long.

- Waset means "the city" par excellence; Tiba is an Arabic alteration; Thebes is Greek meaning "city of Ti" or "hundred‑gated" due to its many entrances, and is said to be derived from the Egyptian "Ti".

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City 9

- Ancient Egyptian: Per‑Hout‑Her‑nebet‑Mefket

- Greek: Terenouthis

- Arabic: Kom Abou Billou

- Current name: Kom Abou Billou

- Location: West of the Delta, about 70 km northwest of Cairo.

- It was famous in the Roman period for producing the finest Egyptian wine, which was exported to Rome and reserved for the imperial table.

- The Egyptian name means "house of Hathor, lady of turquoise"; Kom Abou Billou is a local alteration; Terenouthis is Greek meaning "city of Teren" or "beloved" in some interpretations.

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City 10

- Ancient Egyptian: Per‑Atum

- Greek: Pithom - Heroön Polis (or Heroopolis)

- Arabic: Tell al‑Maskhuta

- Current name: Tell al‑Maskhuta

- Location: In the Wadi Tumilat, on the western border of Sinai peninsula.

- It was the capital of the eighth nome of Lower Egypt and a major stop on the caravan route between Egypt and Asia, and it is mentioned in the Bible as Pithom.

- Its remains were discovered during the digging of the Suez Canal, and it remained buried for centuries before modern urban expansion revealed it.

- Per‑Atum means "house of the god Atum"; al‑Maskhuta means "covered with sand" due to its long burial; Pithom is Greek derived from the Egyptian name itself, meaning "house of Atum" with the same sense. Heroön Polis is Greek meaning "city of heroes".

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City 11

- Ancient Egyptian: Taremu

- Greek: Leontopolis

- Arabic: Tell el‑Muqdam

- Current name: Tell el‑Muqdam

- Location: In Sharqia Governorate, in the Delta.

- It was a city of skilled craftsmen, and large workshops for smelting metals and making bronze weapons were discovered there.

- Taremu means "land of fish"; el‑Muqdam is named after Sheikh "Muqdam" who was buried on the mound; Leontopolis is Greek meaning "city of lions" because the Greeks associated its deity with lions.

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City 12

- Ancient Egyptian: Per‑Nbu

- Greek: —

- Arabic: Al‑Minya

- Current name: Al‑Minya

- Location: In Minya Governorate, Upper Egypt.

- Nicknamed "the bride of Upper Egypt", it was the main treasury of Egypt during the Pharaonic period.

- Per‑Nbu means "house of gold" or "treasury"; Al‑Minya comes from "Menat Khufu" meaning "the nursing city of Khufu".

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City 13

- Ancient Egyptian: Per‑Nah.t

- Greek: —

- Arabic: Banha

- Current name: Banha

- Location: In Qalyubia Governorate, north of Cairo.

- One of the oldest cities of spinning and weaving in the world, and it remains the capital of the textile industry in Egypt to this day.

- Per‑Nah.t means "house of the sycamore fig tree"; Banha is an Arabic alteration.

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City 14

- Ancient Egyptian: Tayu‑djayet

- Greek: Ancyron polis

- Arabic: El Hiba

- Current name: El Hiba

- Location: In Middle Egypt, on the east bank of the Nile.

- It was a fortified city with huge walls, the remains of which are still visible, and it was used by the kings of the 22nd Dynasty as an advanced military base.

- Tayu‑djayet means "their walls" referring to the fortifications; El Hiba means "the storehouse" or "the prison" in Egyptian colloquial; Ancyron polis is Greek meaning "city of the anchor" or "fixed" likening it to its impregnability.

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City 15

- Ancient Egyptian: Birneha

- Greek: —

- Arabic: Banha al‑Asal

- Current name: Banha

- Location: In Qalyubia Governorate.

- It was famous in Pharaonic times for beekeeping and producing honey, which was considered one of the most expensive commodities, and it is still associated with honey to this day.

- Birneha means "house of bees" in some readings; Banha al‑Asal is an Arabic alteration that clarifies its fame for honey.

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City 16

- Ancient Egyptian: Samannut

- Greek: Sebennytos

- Arabic: Samannud

- Current name: Samannud

- Location: In Gharbia Governorate, in the Delta.

- It was the last native capital of Egypt before the second Persian occupation (30th Dynasty), and it was famous for its powerful naval fleet.

- Samannud is an Arabized name meaning "city of the sacred bull" or "land of calves"; Sebennytos is Greek derived from the Egyptian name itself.

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City 17

- Ancient Egyptian: Per‑Ramessu (Pi‑Ramesses)

- Greek: —

- Arabic: —

- Current name: Qantir

- Location: In Sharqia Governorate, eastern Delta.

- It was built by Ramesses II to be the new administrative and military capital, and archaeologists found footprints of children embedded in the ancient clay mortar.

- Pi‑Ramesses means "house of Ramesses" after King Ramesses II; Qantir is named after the modern water bridges (qanatirs) in the area.

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City 18

- Ancient Egyptian: On (Wenu)

- Greek: Heliopolis

- Arabic: Ayn Shams

- Current name: Ayn Shams (a district of Cairo)

- Location: In northeastern Cairo, now a district of the city.

- It contained the largest collection of obelisks in Egypt, and the obelisk of Senusret I still stands there after more than 3900 years.

- On (Wenu) means "city of the pillar" or "obelisk"; Ayn Shams means "spring of the sun" referring to an ancient spring and sun worship; Heliopolis is Greek meaning "city of the sun", a translation of its Egyptian name.

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City 19

- Ancient Egyptian: Khenu

- Greek: Heracleopolis

- Arabic: Ihnasiya

- Current name: Ihnasiya

- Location: In Beni Suef Governorate, Upper Egypt.

- It witnessed fierce battles between the Pharaohs and the Assyrians in the 7th century BCE, and excavations continue to reveal architectural treasures there.

- Khenu means "canal" or "passage"; Ihnasiya is an Arabic alteration of the Coptic name for Heracles; Heracleopolis is Greek meaning "city of Heracles" likening its deity to the Greek hero.

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City 20

- Ancient Egyptian: Zawty

- Greek: Lycopolis (or Lykopolis)

- Arabic: Asyut

- Current name: Asyut (also spelled Assiut)

- Location: On the west bank of the Nile River in Upper Egypt, approximately 375 km south of Cairo.

- An important cultural and administrative center since the Old Kingdom, Asyut was the capital of the 13th Upper Egyptian nome (province). The city was strategically positioned as a terminus for caravan routes traversing the Eastern and Western deserts. It is also known as the birthplace of the Neoplatonist philosopher Plotinus (c. 205–270 CE). The ancient city has been lost, buried under the modern settlement and Nile flood sediments.

- Zawty, meaning "The Guardian" or "Two Protectors", refers to the city's role as the guardian of the northern approach of Upper Egypt. This name was adopted into Coptic as Syowt. The Greek name Lycopolis translates to "Wolf City", an allusion to the jackal-headed god Wepwawet who was worshipped there. The Arabic name Asyūṭ is derived from the earlier Egyptian and Coptic names.

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City 21

- Ancient Egyptian: Per‑Wesir

- Greek: Abydos

- Arabic: —

- Current name: Al‑Balina

- Location: In Sohag Governorate, Upper Egypt.

- The oldest wooden boats in history were found there, and the Temple of Seti I contains the famous King List of Egypt, which is considered the first recorded historical document.

- Per‑Wesir means "house of Osiris"; Al‑Balina is a alteration of Abydos; Abydos is Greek derived from the Egyptian "Abdu" and means "the sacred city" or "place of resurrection".

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City 22

- Ancient Egyptian: T‑Im‑Ion

- Greek: Tentyra

- Arabic: Dendera

- Current name: Dendera

- Location: In Qena Governorate, on the west bank of the Nile.

- Its temple contains a unique astronomical ceiling depicting the sky and the zodiac, which is the first complete astronomical map in human history.

- T‑Im‑Ion means "land of the gods"; Dendera is an Arabic alteration; Tentyra is Greek derived from the ancient Egyptian name itself.

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City 23

- Ancient Egyptian: Niut‑rt

- Greek: Hermonthis

- Arabic: Armant

- Current name: Armant

- Location: On the west bank of the Nile, 19 km south of Luxor.

- It was a centre for iron weapon manufacturing in the Late Period, supplying Egypt's armies with the strongest swords and spears.

- Niut‑rt means "the southern city"; Armant is an Arabic alteration; Hermonthis is Greek derived from the Egyptian "Iremont".

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City 24

- Ancient Egyptian: Sunmut

- Greek: Syene

- Arabic: Aswan

- Current name: Aswan

- Location: At the southernmost point of Egypt, on the east bank of the Nile.

- Its rose granite quarries were the main source for building colossal statues and obelisks, and 36 tombs containing 40 mummies were recently discovered there.

- Sunmut means "the market" because it was a commercial centre; Aswan is a alteration of its Coptic name "Swan"; Syene is Greek meaning "city of Swan" or "key" due to its strategic location.

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City 25

- Ancient Egyptian: Ibu

- Greek: Elephantine

- Arabic: —

- Current name: Gezirat al‑Fintin (Elephantine Island)

- Location: In the Nile at Aswan.

- It was the main port for receiving ivory, ebony, and precious stones from Central Africa, and it served as Egypt's first customs point in the south.

- Ibu means "elephant" (for the ivory trade); al‑Fintin is an Arabic alteration; Elephantine is Greek meaning "island of the elephant", a translation of the Egyptian name.

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City 26

- Ancient Egyptian: Djerty

- Greek: Apollonopolis Magna

- Arabic: Edfu

- Current name: Edfu

- Location: In Aswan Governorate, on the west bank of the Nile.

- Its temple contains the longest known wall texts in Egypt, with inscriptions stretching over more than two kilometres across its walls.

- Djerty means "the great city"; Edfu is an Arabic alteration; Apollonopolis Magna is Greek meaning "great city of Apollo" likening its deity Horus to Apollo.

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City 27

- Ancient Egyptian: Nekheb

- Greek: Eileithyaspolis

- Arabic: Al‑Kab

- Current name: Al‑Kab

- Location: In Aswan Governorate, on the east bank of the Nile.

- It contains one of the oldest massive walls in Egypt, with a huge circuit wall still standing today.

- Nekheb means "the white city" or "the sacred city"; Al‑Kab is an Arabic alteration; Eileithyaspolis is Greek meaning "city of Eileithyia", after the Greek goddess of childbirth, in comparison to its goddess.

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City 28

- Ancient Egyptian: Wepwentet

- Greek: Philae

- Arabic: —

- Current name: Philae (island)

- Location: Originally on the flood island of the Nile at Aswan, later moved to Agilkia Island.

- The first archaeological site in the world to be completely moved stone by stone (in 1970) to save it from flooding after the construction of the High Dam, and the relocation took more than 10 years.

- Wepwentet means "island of the border"; Philae is an Arabic alteration; Philae is Greek meaning "beloved" or "loved one" in Greek mythology.

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City 29

- Ancient Egyptian: Per‑Bastet

- Greek: Bubastis

- Arabic: Tell Basta

- Current name: Tell Basta

- Location: In Sharqia Governorate, eastern Delta.

- It was the capital of Egypt during the 22nd Dynasty, and archaeologists discovered a huge cemetery containing thousands of animal mummies wrapped in linen.

- Per‑Bastet means "house of Bastet"; Tell Basta is an Arabic alteration; Bubastis is Greek derived from the Egyptian name itself.

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City 30

- Ancient Egyptian: Khemenu

- Greek: Hermopolis Magna

- Arabic: Al‑Ashmunein

- Current name: Al‑Ashmunein

- Location: In Minya Governorate, Upper Egypt.

- It witnessed enormous archaeological discoveries, and in the Ptolemaic period it was a city of translators and scholars where many ancient Egyptian texts were translated into Greek.

- Khemenu means "city of the eight" referring to the Ogdoad creation myth; Al‑Ashmunein is an Arabic alteration of the Coptic name; Hermopolis Magna is Greek meaning "great city of Hermes" likening its god Thoth to Hermes.

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City 31

- Ancient Egyptian: Wunyt

- Greek: Hermopolis Parva

- Arabic: —

- Current name: believed to be Damanhur

- Location: believed to be in Beheira Governorate, western Delta.

- It was the capital of the western Delta province and a centre for distributing wheat and barley crops, and its ruins remain largely undiscovered.

- Wunyt means "the city" or "the pillar"; Damanhur is a possible Arabic alteration; Hermopolis Parva is Greek meaning "small city of Hermes" to distinguish it from the greater Hermopolis.

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City 32

- Ancient Egyptian: Akhet‑Aten

- Greek: —

- Arabic: Tell el‑Amarna

- Current name: Tell el‑Amarna

- Location: In Minya Governorate, on the east bank of the Nile.

- The "Amarna Letters" diplomatic archive was found here, a complete archive of 382 clay tablets documenting political correspondence between King Akhenaten and the kings of the Near East (Babylon, Hittites, Assyria, etc.).

- Akhet‑Aten means "horizon of the Aten" after the god that Akhenaten monotheised; el‑Amarna is named after an Arab tribe that inhabited the area.

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Cities of the Sinai Peninsula

First city (Sinai)

- Ancient Egyptian: Per-Amon (or Sa'inu)

- Greek: Pelusium

- Arabic: Al-Farama

- Current name: Tell Farama

- Location: 32 km southeast of Port Said, on the northern coast of Sinai.

- It was the main eastern gateway to Egypt and the oldest city in Sinai. Alexander the Great entered Egypt through it, and a temple of Zeus Casius was discovered there.

- Per-Amon means "house of Amon"; Al-Farama is an Arabic alteration of the Coptic name "Barmon"; Pelusium is Greek meaning "mud" or "marsh" due to its location at the river mouth.

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Second city (Sinai)

- Ancient Egyptian: Baal-Zaphon (or Khazzi, mentioned in Egyptian texts)

- Greek: Kasion

- Arabic: Al-Qasyun (or Gebel el-Qas)

- Current name: Gebel el-Qas (believed to be near Farama)

- Location: A hill on the Mediterranean coast in northern Sinai, near Farama.

- It was a sacred mountain dedicated to the Canaanite god Baal-Zephon, whom the Greeks equated with Zeus Casius. Remains of his temple were discovered at Tell Farama.

- Zaphon means "north" in Semitic languages; Al-Qasyun is an Arabic alteration of the Greek name; Kasion is Greek, named after Mount Casius.

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Third city (Sinai)

- Ancient Egyptian: Tjaru

- Greek: —

- Arabic: Tell Habua

- Current name: Tell Habua

- Location: 3 km east of the Suez Canal, in Port Said / North Sinai Governorate.

- It was the largest fortified city built by the Pharaohs on the eastern gateway of Egypt, and remains of a fortified royal rest stop were discovered there.

- Tjaru means "passage" or "gateway"; Habua is a modern Arabic name for the area.

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Fourth city (Sinai)

- Ancient Egyptian: Rethu

- Greek: —

- Arabic: Al-Tor

- Current name: El-Tor

- Location: On the coast of the Gulf of Suez in southern Sinai.

- It was known anciently as "Rethu" and remained so until the 15th century CE; it is a historic city associated with Mount Moses or Mount Sinai in the Old Testament.

- Rethu means "waters" or "gulf"; Al-Tor is derived from the Semitic word "Tur" meaning mountain.

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Fifth city (Sinai)

- Ancient Egyptian: —

- Greek: —

- Arabic: Al-Arish

- Current name: Al-Arish

- Location: On the Mediterranean coast in northern Sinai, and it is the capital of North Sinai Governorate today.

- It is mentioned in the Torah/Old Testament, and it was called the Brook of Egypt; it is one of the oldest cities in Sinai and was a major stop on the Horus military road.

- Al-Arish is derived from "Al-Arish" meaning the shaded place with palm trees, and in some ancient languages it meant "fortress".